Lagopus lagopus Linnaeus, 1758
Text, maps and photos
from Storch I. (2000) : Grouse Action Plan 2000-2004,
reproduced here with the Editor's agreement
Synonyms:
Tetrao lagopus,
Tetrao albus, Lagopus albus
Common
names:
Liu lei
niao
Chinese
Willow
ptarmigan, English
Riekko
Finnish
Lagopède
des saules
French
Moorschneehuhn
German
Lirype
Norwegian
Belaya
kuropatka
Russian
Lagopodo
comun
Spanish
Dalripa
Swedish
willow grouse
Red grouse (L. l. scoticus)
photo by Hans
Aschenbrenner
Conservation Status
IUCN 1996: Lower risk
(least concern).
CITES 1998: not listed in Appendices.
National red data books: listed in some European countries and
China.
Taxonomy
Numerous subspecies have been described by various authors; their validity needs evaluation. Johnsgard (1983) lists 16, Potapov and Flint (1989) recognise 15, and del Hoyo et al. (1994) suggest 19 subspecies worldwide; Hannon et al. (1998) describe six subspecies for North America.
Distribution
Circumpolar. Arctic, subarctic, and subalpine tundra of North America and northern Eurasia and heather moorland in Britain. The northernmost extension of the range is at 76°N, the southern distribution limits vary between 47° and 62°N. In winter, the species may occur both lower in altitude and latitude than the breeding range. Most populations winter within their breeding range; however, in the northernmost parts of the range and in years with high population density, some winter flocks migrate up to 200km (Russia) and up to 1000km (North America) south of the breeding range. Many populations are locally migrant. The willow ptarmigan has the largest distribution of all grouse species (see Potapov and Flint 1989, Sablevicius 1997, Hannon et al. 1998).
Population size and trend
Willow ptarmigan is widespread and common in many parts of its extensive range. Populations fluctuate in numbers, and are regionally cyclic in 3-4 year (Eurasia) or 10-year (North America) cycles. In Canada, local spring densities vary between <1 to >200 birds per km_; in the Russian tundra, densities often reach 20-30 and up to 60 pairs per km_ (see Potapov and Flint 1989, Hannon et al. 1998). For Britain, breeding densities may reach maxima of 115 pairs per km_ in areas intensively managed for grouse (Hudson and Rands 1988). Some range contractions have been recorded in parts of Europe (Baltic countries, Belarus) and in central Asia (steppes of Kazakhstan and southwest Siberia).
Habitat and ecology
The willow ptarmigan inhabits primary arctic tundra, openings in boreal forest, forest edge habitats, and subalpine vegetation. Willow ptarmigan prefer moderately moist lowland areas rich in low willows Salix or birches Betula and ericaceous shrubs, mosses, grasses, and herbs, and more rarely use steep slopes, rocky areas, and lichen-rich tundra. In winter, the birds prefer valley bottoms and riparian habitats with dense cover of willows, birches, alder, aspen, or conifers. In some regions, willow ptarmigan use farmland to some degree. Where both species are sympatric, the willow ptarmigan generally occurs at lower elevations and in wetter habitats with denser vegetation than the rock ptarmigan L. mutus. Where all three Lagopus species occur, e.g. in the Yukon, Alaska, and parts of British Columbia, the white-tailed ptarmigan L. leucurus is found at the highest elevations (see Potapov and Flint 1989, Hannon et al. 1998).
Hunting and cultural importance
The willow ptarmigan is hunted throughout its range, except for the Baltic countries, Belarus, and China, where it is fully protected. At least regionally, it is a game bird of great cultural and economic importance. The willow ptarmigan is the most numerous grouse species in the bag of British, Fennoscandian, and Russian hunters. Estimates of annual harvest are 1.2 millions in the Russian tundra (Grabuzov 1995), and >600,000 in both Britain and Fennoscandia (del Hoyo et al. 1994; H.C. Pedersen, pers. comm.). The habitats of the British subspecies scoticus, the "red grouse", are intensively managed to produce high densities for sport hunting. The species is hunted for both sport and food in northern Europe and America, and primarily for food in eastern Europe and Asia.
Principal threats
Habitat degradation. Willow ptarmigan habitats are generally well protected by their remoteness. Locally, habitats may be affected by settlements, military bases, roads, mining, afforestation, cultivation and other human activities. Road construction increases the accessibility of willow ptarmigan habitats and may result in increased hunting pressure (North America, Russia, Scandinavia). Forestry practices were reported to impact habitats negatively in Finland.
Small population size. In some areas at the edge of the range, some local populations may be threatened by their small size in possibly suboptimal habitats (e.g. Baltic countries).
Collisions. In Scandinavia, collisions with high-tension power lines may kill significant numbers of willow ptarmigan, e.g. >100,000 annually have been estimated to be killed in this way in Norway (H.C. Pedersen, pers. comm., see Beveranger 1995). In Scotland, many birds die from collisions with deer fences (Baines and Summers 1997).
Research needs
The willow ptarmigan has received much more attention in research than the other Lagopus species, especially in studies on behaviour, population dynamics and cycles, and predator-prey and host-parasite relationships (see Hudson 1992, Hannon et al. 1998 and refs. therein). Clarification of the taxonomic relationships within the species is needed. Causes of cyclic population fluctuations are still not fully understood. In a conservation context, a better understanding of the effects of hunting and habitat alteration on population dynamics is desirable. There also is a lack of understanding of migration and dispersal behaviour in relation to landscape patterns and their effects on population and metapopulation dynamics.
Current conservation measures
Legal protection. In most of the range, setting of hunting seasons and bag limits is the only management activity.
Protected areas. Only a minor proportion of the range is covered by protected areas; their role for the species was generally considered to be low (source: questionnaires).
Surveys and monitoring. In parts of the range, surveys and monitoring are restricted to local scales. In Canada, monitoring is restricted to several sites in British Columbia. In Fennoscandia and Britain, some populations are regularly monitored.
Habitat improvement. In Britain, the heather moorland habitat of the red grouse is intensively managed to maintain high population densities of grouse for sport hunting. The major measure is burning to produce a mosaic of different ages of heather-dominated vegetation. Additional measures are predator control and disease control. Management for red grouse has a long tradition and a great cultural and economic importance in Britain and has increased grouse population densities well above natural densities in many places (see Hudson 1992 and refs. therein).
Priority conservation measures
Due to the vast range and secure status of the species, conservation needs are local. Population monitoring to ensure sustainability of exploitation is recommended in areas with potentially high hunting pressure.
Correspondents
Ayurzanyn Bold, Volodymyr Domashlinets, David Jenkins, Harto Lindén, Kathy Martin, David Mossop, David Newborn, Hans-Christian Pedersen, Roald Potatpov, Torstein Storaas, Sun Yue-Hua, Fred Zwickel.
Key publications
Hannon, S. J., Martin, K. and Eason, P. K. 1998. Willow ptarmigan. The birds of North America, No. 369. The birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
Hudson, P.J. 1992. Grouse in space and time. The population biology of a managed gamebird. Game Conservancy Ltd., Fordingbridge, UK.
Potapov, R. L. and Flint, V. E. 1989. Handbuch der Vögel der Sowjetunion. Band 4 Galliformes, Gruiformes. 427 pp. Ziemsen Verlag Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Germany. (ISBN 3-7403-0027