Tympanuchus cupido Linnaeus, 1758

Text, map and photo from Storch I. (2000) : Grouse Action Plan 2000-2004,
reproduced here with the Editor's agreement

Common names:	Greater prairie chicken, pinnated grouse	English
	Poule des prairies	French
	Gallo de las parades grande	Spanish

Photo: a male, by Winnifred Kessler

Conservation Status

IUCN 1996: Lower risk (least concern).
CITES 1998: T. c. attwateri (Attwater's prairie chicken) (Appendix I)
EU(EC 338/97 Protection by Regulating Trade): T. c. attwateri (Annex A)
National red data books: listed in Canada (extinct): T. c. attwateri listed in the US.

The subspecies T. c. attwateri, Attwater's prairie chicken, qualifies to be listed as critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List Categories under criteria CR; A1a, D (see Appendix 2). Numbers have declined from 8,700 birds in 1937 (Lehmann 1941) to 1,584 birds in 1980 (Lawrence and Silvy 1980, Morrow et al. 1996, Silvy et al. 1999); the total population remaining in the wild in 1999 was 46 birds in two isolated populations in Texas that were largely supported by releases of captive-reared birds (N. Silvy, pers. comm).

 

Taxonomy

Two geographically isolated subspecies are recognised, T. c. pinnatus (greater prairie chicken) and T. c. attwateri (Attwater´s prairie chicken). A third subspecies, the heath hen T. c. cupido, is extinct.

 

Distribution

Central North America. T. c. pinnatus and T. c. attwateri were originally found in eastern portions of Great Plains from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan south through southern Texas. T. c. cupido was found in northeastern U.S.A. including the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland. T. c. pinnatus responded positively to initial increases in agriculture throughout central and western portions of Great Plains. Areas of expansion included the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and the state of Colorado. Currently, T. c. pinnatus is restricted to Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and small portions of Colorado, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. T. c. attwateri is restricted to small isolated areas in southeastern Texas (see stars on distribution map).

 

Population size and trend

T. c. cupido became extinct in the 1930s after many years of dramatic declines; exploitation is thought to have played an important role. T. c. attwateri declined from 8,700 birds in 1937 (Lehman 1941) to 1,070 birds in 1967 (Lehmann 1968); by 1999 only 46 birds remained in two isolated populations that were largely supported by releases of captive-reared birds (N. Silvy, pers. comm). Consequently, there is an immediate risk of extinction for T. c. attwateri. The subspecies was included in the Red Data Books in the late 1970s, and its decline could not be stopped despite extensive conservation efforts. In contrast, although T. c. pinnatus has declined in many regions, current populations appear to be relatively stable throughout much of the range. Total population size is estimated at within an order of magnitude of 600,000 birds (Schroeder and Robb 1993, M. Schroeder pers. comm).

 

Habitat and ecology

Originally, greater prairie chickens were inhabitants of eastern and southern tall grass prairie habitats interspersed with oak (Quercus spp.) woodland. Birds fed, roosted, and nested in grass-dominated habitats during most of the year. During winter, food habitats shifted toward buds or mast (acorns), occasionally necessitating migration between breeding and wintering habitats. Currently, the critical winter food throughout most of range is grain, frequently corn and soybeans. Consequently, the configuration of cropland with adequate mid and tall grass prairie for nesting and brood-rearing appears to be a significant feature of most occupied habitat. Lack of sufficient quantity and quality of nesting habitat appears to be the limiting factor in most areas where greater prairie chicken populations are depressed or extinct. (See Schroeder and Robb 1993.)

 

Hunting and cultural importance

Greater prairie chickens were a game species for aboriginal Americans and the Europeans that followed them, but their influence on the population was probably low. Market hunting and poaching may have had dramatic impacts on some populations during the late 1800's and early 1900's. The first legislation to regulate hunting in the northeastern U.S.A. was passed in 1791. Greater prairie chickens currently are receiving more attention from naturalists and/or bird-watchers as more people learn to appreciate the spectacular breeding display of birds on leks (booming grounds).

 

Principal threats

Habitat loss. Although a mixture of small amounts of cropland with native prairie can be optimal, large-scale conversion of prairie to cropland, woodland, or development resulted in the dramatic loss of greater prairie chickens throughout most of their original range.

 Habitat degradation. Degradation may be caused by a variety of factors including overgrazing by livestock, encroachment by noxious weeds, alteration of fire regimes, and fragmentation. Reduction in habitat quality may reduce survival and nesting/brood-rearing success. In Kansas, for example, nearly 90% of the Flint Hills tallgrass prairie is burned annually in March and April to manage for cattle grazing. This coupled with early intensive grazing regimes greatly restricts available nesting and brood rearing cover. In eastern Kansas, much native warm-season grass pasture has been converted to cool-season grasses such as tall fescue which provides no habitat benefit to prairie chickens or other grasslands birds. In southeastern Kansas, total lack of burning has led to extensive encroachment of woody vegetation into grasslands (R. Applegate, pers. comm.).

 Small population size. Habitat loss and fragmentation have led to small and isolated populations in some areas. Small isolated populations may be vulnerable to declines in genetic heterogeneity and fertility, and subsequently to extinction (Westemeier et al. 1998a) (see 2.6.2). Due to the small size of the remnant populations, the extinction of the Attwater's prairie chicken is probable.

 Pesticides and herbicides. Herbicide treatment of rangeland may result in the loss of cover for nesting, brood-rearing, and loafing. Pesticides may directly poison birds or indirectly affect birds by reducing the abundance of invertebrates.

 

Research needs

Monitoring and assessment. Information on sex ratio, lek attendance by males and females, and lek stability is needed so that lek surveys can be used to adequately monitor populations of greater prairie chickens throughout their range. Because of the importance of the lek mating system in this species, and the reliance on counts of lekking males for monitoring populations, there is a need to understand the relationship between number of lekking males to numbers of females and total population size.

 Population dynamics. The influence of habitat and predation on adult survival, nest success (e.g. Mckee et al. 1998), and survival of juveniles to the age of recruitment remains a poorly understood aspect of greater prairie chicken life history. Additional research needs include the impact of harvesting on population dynamics and viability.

 Landscape ecology. There is a crucial need to understand the landscape use of the greater prairie chicken (e.g. Mckee et al. 1998). These birds do not use and occupy small habitat patches except under intensive management such as that provided in Illinois, Wisconsin, and other edges of the occupied range. Few studies of greater prairie chickens have been conducted in the existing core areas of the range such as Kansas, where populations utilise a landscape that is comprised of extensive grasslands with small areas of cropland, developments and woody cover (R. Applegate, pers. comm.).

 Habitat fragmentation and population viability. Research in Illinois indicated that reduced breeding success due to loss of genetic diversity may affect the viability of isolated, remnant populations of greater prairie chickens (Westemeier et al. 1998a). There is a need to further investigate the genetic diversity (e.g. Westemeier et al. 1998a, Bouzat et al. 1997, 1998), dynamics (e.g. Peterson and Silvy 1996, Mckee et al. 1998), dispersal behaviour, and viability of populations and metapopulations in fragmented habitats.

 Habitat management and restoration. Experiments are rarely conducted to evaluate the long-term impacts of management practices (such as grazing, burning, cultivation, fragmentation, restoration, and food plots) on populations of greater prairie chickens. The information necessary to restore degraded habitats adequately is also largely unavailable.

 

Current conservation measures

Legal protection. Greater prairie chickens are legally protected throughout their range. States permitting a regulated harvest include Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. T. c. attwateri is federally listed and protected as an 'endangered' species. It also is included in CITES Appendix I which almost completely prohibits international trade. There are some trade restrictions for the UK and some Asian countries as well (see table below).

 Habitat improvement. Manipulation of grazing by livestock and the controlled use of fire are the primary tools used to improve the quality of habitat. Because nesting and brood-rearing habitat is usually considered to be a limiting factor, efforts are directed toward increasing the protective cover of grasses in most areas, decreasing the grass cover in portions of Texas and Missouri, and decreasing encroachment by trees in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The CRP, a US federal agricultural conservation programme (see 2.7.4), has resulted in conversion of millions of hectares of cropland to potential habitat for greater prairie chickens. This programme is seen as a major factor in the recent stabilisation of the populations. It is scheduled to continue at least until the year 2008. In the long term, a more permanent substitute in the form of landowner incentives must be developed because of the lack of guarantee that this program will be renewed after its expiration.

 Predator control. Predator control may increase nesting success of greater prairie chickens. However the long-term affects of predator control on population viability is not known. Because the political ramifications of predator control are likely to be negative, it is possible that predator control efforts should be re-directed toward manipulations of habitat.

 Competitor control. Ring-necked pheasants Phasianus colchicus are removed in portions of Illinois where they parasitise greater prairie chicken nests (Westemeier et al. 1998b).

 Food and water provision. Because greater prairie chickens clearly use cropland during winter, food plots are often provided. However specific food plots and water provision have not been shown to influence populations on a large scale.

 Reintroduction. Translocations of birds into formerly occupied habitats have mostly been unsuccessful. The reasons are seen as inadequate habitat at the release site and poor survival and reproductive success of the translocated birds.

 Captive breeding. Captive breeding is used as last resort for T. c. attwateri in an effort to prevent extinction. There are no examples so far of captive breeding successfully producing or augmenting a wild population, but the subspecies may be preserved in captivity.

 Translocation. Re-introductions have been mostly unsuccessful, usually because of inadequate habitat at the release site. Projects in Colorado, Missouri, and Iowa may be regarded as positive exceptions (M. Schroeder, pers. comm). Translocations are likely to be used more in the future to increase genetic heterogeneity and fertility of small isolated populations; a study in Illinois provides an example (Westemeier et al. 1998a). 

 

Priority conservation measures

The conservation of Attwater´s prairie chicken, a subspecies that is globally endangered, has highest priority among actions for the greater prairie-chicken. Recommendations concerning Attwater´s prairie chicken are described in Chapter 4. Below, general conservation needs for the greater prairie chicken are suggested.

 Habitat preservation and restoration. There is a need to manage habitats actively in the core of the range to maintain large and genetically healthy populations. The CRP (see 2.7.4) has the potential to provide millions of hectares of habitat for greater prairie chickens throughout their range but must be regarded as a temporary solution. The programme is currently designed to produce relatively high quality prairie with a diversity of native grass and forb species. A permanently funded landowner incentive programme will be necessary in order to assure the future of species.

 Maintaining and restoring spatial connectivity. Maintaining and restoring spatial connectivity among local populations seems to be vital. The fate of Attwater's prairie chicken indicates that once populations and habitat have become small and isolated, the chances for population restoration are poor. Preventive measures are needed for the remaining larger populations and metapopulation systems. Restoration of habitats should include development of corridors between isolated populations.

 Design and application of conservation plans. Landscape scale conservation plans for each population of greater prairie chickens should be designed with the aid of public and private landowners and interested citizens. The conservation plans should include appropriate recommendations for habitat management, restoration, configuration, and acquisition in order to maintain long-term population viability. Efforts should be made with reasonable speed to apply management recommendations in conservation plans.

Correspondents

Roger Applegate, Rick Baydack, Kenneth Giesen, Michael Morrow, Markus Peterson, Michael Schroeder, Nova Silvy

Key publications

 Lehmann, V.W. 1941. Attwater's prairie chicken: its life history and management. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, North American Fauna 57.

Schroeder, M. and Robb, L. 1993. Greater prairie chicken. The birds of North America, No. 36. The birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Silvy, N.J., C.P. Griffin, M.A. Lockwood, M.E. Morrow, and M.J. Peterson. 1999. Attwater's prairie chicken: a lesson in conservation biology research. Pages 153-162 in W.D. Svedarsky, R.H. Hier, and N.J. Silvy, editors. The greater prairie chicken: a national look. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Miscellaneous Publication 99-1999. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.

Westemeier, R.L., Brawn, J.D., Simpson, S.A., Esker, T.L., Jansen, R.W., Walk, J.W., Kershner, E.L., Bouzat, J.L., and Paige, K.N. 1998a. Tracking the long-term decline and recovery of an isolated population. Science 282:1695-1698.